RE: [DL] Native Americans in Arizona -- long

[Lisa Kenison <lisa.kenison@asu.edu>]

Ok here is what i got for you
hehe
finally all those history classes on the old west arent useless
my mom would be so proud i can use my liberal arts and crafts degrees for
gaming hehe :)

ok the 4 below are the main ones i can think of 
the zuni pueblos are in nm
and there are a few lost gone tribes as well
the anazai and one more that escapes me

email me if you want more info
or links or anything hehe 

lisa

hope this helps
=)
******


1.  The Hopi -- they are in black mesa near the painted desert in NE az in
the middle of the navajo reservation

The Hopis are thought to have migrated north out of Mexico around 500 B.C.
They were a hunting and gathering group that lived in small bands in pit
houses. Almost 1200 years later, the main staple of the Hopi diet switched
to the small, blue ears of corn they were able to grow, using runoff from
the mesas. Many of the small bands began to come together, and large
villages started to grow on top of these mesas. As the population grew
agriculture became more and more important. Clans formed within the
villages, and each clan had its own field that it was responsible for. Hopi
society was matrilineal, which meant that the mother determined field
inheritance and social status. Women owned the field, but only the men of
their clan worked in them. Each clan was also in charge of certain religious
ceremonies throughout the year. A society within each clan would perform the
ceremonies, with societies of women taking charge of certain ceremonies as
well. The Hopis enjoyed this peaceful way of life, until around 1540, when a
group of Spanish explorers led by Coronado first came to this region.
Spanish missionaries tried to convert the natives, while the soldiers and
explorers looked for any way to exploit them. During this time, the
neighboring Navajo tribe began to come under pressure from the Spanish as
well, and they began attacking the Spanish as well as the Hopi and other
neighboring tribes. The Hopi people were forced to fight for their survival.
This long period of fighting lasted until 1824 when Spain recognized Mexico
and the Hopi lands were given to the new Mexican government.   Although
Spain now left them in peace, the Navajo continued to attack and take lands
away from the Hopi.   In 1870, the U.S. government laid claim to the lands
of the Hopi, and they were forced to fight, until finally being forced onto
the reservation in Black Mesa, where they live today.

2. The Salt River Pima-Maricopa Indian Community :comprised of two Native
American tribes: the Pima- "Akimel Au-Authm," (River People) and the
Maricopa- "Xalychidom Piipaash," (People who live toward the water). The
Maricopa tribes were small bands that lived along the lower Gila and
Colorado rivers. In the early 1800's they migrated toward Pima villages. The
Pima, known as a friendly tribe, established a relationship with the
Maricopa. Both tribes provided protection against the Yuman and Apache
tribes. 

The Pima believe they are the descendants of the "Hohokam," (those who have
gone) an ancient civilization who lived in Arizona nearly two thousand
years, dating as far back as 300BC. The Hohokam farmed the Salt River Valley
and created elaborate canal irrigation systems throughout the valley area;
that system, now modernized is still used today. 

The Pima were strong runners, basket weavers and farmers who could make the
desert bloom. They served as trusted scouts for the U.S. Cavalry and
continue to serve their country today in various forms of the armed forces. 

The Pima's are well known for their basket weaving techniques, intricately
woven they are made watertight. The Maricopa, known for their red clay
pottery work, created various forms of jars and bowls. Both forms of artwork
are made of natural materials and can be viewed at the Community's
Hoo-hoogam Ki Museum. 

The Pima and Maricopa tribes together, comprise the Salt River Pima-Maricopa
Indian Community. 

3. the Apache = yavapai apache and white mtn apache are here too i think,
near the white river

White Mtn Apache:  In 1869 Brevet Col. John Green marched from Fort Thomas
with a small expeditionary force. He was given authority to destroy village
crops, food stock and people. He burned more than 100 acres of corn. Yet the
White Mountain Apache remained friendly. This is not what he expected.
Instead of hostility, Green found a peaceful tribe living on their ancestral
lands. Because of the abundance of timber, water game and farm land, Green
recommended a fort be built at the confluence of the North and East forks of
the Whiteriver 
      
Col. John Green recommended the reservation incorporate lands occupied by
the White Mountain Apache, and Carrizo bands and also, incorporate a four
company army post to protect peaceful Apaches from involvement with hostile
bands and the invasion of the white men looking for mineral deposits,
timbers and arable land.

1870-1886 Apache War 

On May 16, 1870 an army post was established by the 1st Cavalry near the
present town of Whiteriver. The post was named Camp Ord. August 1, 1870 the
name was changed to Camp Mogollon, then to Camp Thomas.

In 1871, Lt. Col. George Crook was assigned to command the Department of
Arizona. On February 2, 1871, the name changed again, to Camp Apache.
Captain John G. Bourke arrived at Camp Apache with Lt. Col. George Crook. It
was not until April 5, 1879 the post became Fort Apache. 

In the summer of 1871, Crook enlisted 44 White Mountain and Cibecue Apaches
in the army and organized the Indian Scout. In 1872 Quarters were primitive,
consisting of rows of log "squad" huts and tents. 

General Crook occupied the log cabin at the end of officer's row. The
restoration of Crook's cabin was finished in 1995 and is now housing the
Office of Tourism and Tribal Enterprise Division.  (Pictured Below)
 

1872-1873 Crook's Tonto Basin Campaign. 
In 1873 Crook promoted a Brigadier General for his successful campaign.

On February 1, 1877 - Fort Apache Military Reservation was established by
executive order. The original Apache reservation extended roughly from the
Gila River to the Mogollon Rim, from Cherry Creek to the New Mexico border.

Geronimo's Return 
       
January 1880 - Geronimo returns to San Carlos. In 1881, Indian Agent John
Clum initiated the relocation of all Western Apache to the San Carlos
Agency. Many Tonto, White Mountain, Cibecue and Chiricahua Apaches were
forcibly moved to San Carlos where they lived under concentration camp
conditions.

August 30 , 1881 Battle of Cibecue. Military authorities ordered the Cavalry
to arrest a medicine man named Noch-Ay-del-Klinne whom white settlers had
accused of "stirring up unrest". In the Battle of Cibecue that followed the
arrest, the medicine man, some of his followers and eight troopers were
killed. Seeking retribution, mounted Apache warriors attacked Fort Apache,
but were driven back. It was the only instance of the Fort being attacked.
July 17, 1882 - Battle of Big Dry Wash. 

March 1884, Geronimo surrenders, is sent to Turkey Creek near Fort Apache.
On May 17, 1885 -   Geronimo, Naches, Chihuahua, Nana, Mangus and about 40
warriors and 90 women and children bolt from Fort Apache. On March 25, 1886
- At Canon de los Embudos, General Crook confers with Geronimo.

March 27, 1886 - Geronimo surrenders. It is said on March 28, 1886 Geronimo
got drunk and changed his mind about surrendering.  

On April 1, 1886 General Crook is reassigned. Brigadier General Nelson A.
Miles replaces Crook. September 4, 1886 - Geronimo surrenders to General
Miles at Skeleton Canyon. On September 8, 1886 - Geronimo and his followers
are shipped by rail to Florida.  

yavapai -- The history of Ft. Verde is only half told and partially
understood without mentioning the Yavapai and Apache people.  These two
distinct Indian tribes roamed a vast 10 million acre area covering central
and western Arizona for centuries.  Before Clear Fork, Camp Lincoln as it
was later known, and finally "Camp Verde" was settled, these two native
peoples were hunting the region with bow and arrow for deer, mountain sheep
and pronghorn antelope.  They gathered the abundant berries, seed and fruit
that was available seasonally.   Tobacco, which grew wild, was harvested and
the two groups cultivated corn, squash and beans.  Living in caves and rock
shelters in times of cold and traditional wickiups during warm weather, life
was simple.  Although the two tribes occasionally made hostile contact
between themselves, they roamed the area together and often intermarried.

    It wasn't until the end of the 1500's that they encountered  the first
white men, Espejo's expedition.  The first beaver trap was set on the Salt
and Verde Rivers three hundred years later, in 1828, by Kit Carson.   But by
1865 when the first U.S. military company arrived on the banks of the Rio
Verde, settlers had been around for some time.  And the Indians were busy
protecting their ancient homelands from foreign invaders.  Herds were being
depleted, wild foodstuffs were vanishing.  Women, children and the aged
needed protection.   Finally, they were forced to abandon the lands and live
on a narrow strip, ten miles wide along either side of the Verde River.
Their attempts at farming were successful, but there were too many new
settlers coming into the area to support them all.  So they were forced to
leave for a time and were relocated to the present day San Carlos Apache
Indian Reservation.  Is it any wonder that the different groups inhabiting
the area have had many a hard fought battle for the right to remain within
its verdant borders?  The Verde Valley and the surrounding areas are some of
the most lush and majestic in the southwest.

4. the navajo
Despite attempts to avoid further difficulties, Washington eventually had
enough, and in 1863, in the midst of the Struggle for Existence in the Civil
War, Congress decided that they had to fund an expedition in New Mexico and
Arizona, and Kit Carson, already famous as a "Mountain Man," scout, Indian
agent, and explorer, was sent to bring resolution to the Navajo and allied
problems. The mission was to also deal with Confederate sympathies in the
Southwest, and to control the Mescalero Apache and Jicarilla Apache, in New
Mexico. Unfortunately, Carson did not have full authority for the
expedition, and the mission became quite violent. 
Kit Carson, known as "Red Shirt" to the Navajo, had gained a reputation as a
friend of the Indians, by living with a number of tribes, learning their
ways, and the history and "why's" that had led to their traditions. He
understood that the Navajo decision process was decentralized, and that, if
left on their traditional lands, some bands would continue to raid, no
matter what pieces of paper might be signed, no matter how prominent the
signers on the Navajo side. 

The 1863 expedition included a predominance of volunteers, many of whom were
Hispanic, the offspring of settlers that had been the victims of two-hundred
or more years of raids by the Navajo, and who bore little love for those
people. As the party was assembled, a number of other native Americans,
rivals of the Navajo, also volunteered to help. Ute, Hopi, and Zuni joined
the troop, in force. General James Carleton, the military man responsible
for New Mexico was also in charge of the party. 

Carleton had no sympathy for the Navajo. The expedition moved out in
mid-1963. The Navajo intelligence worked as it usually did, and few Navajo
were seen, but almost every Navajo male that the group caught, they
executed. This was to be a harsh mission. 

The primary tactic taken by the party was a scorched earth policy. As the
Navajo bands fled before the military party, as Carson expected, the
American force moved in and leveled the hogans of the Navajo, destroyed
their crops, orchards, and fields, and confiscated or killed any Navajo
livestock that they found. The expedition also turned a blind eye toward
slaving, and the trade of captured Navajo women and children to slavers in
Mexico, although this was officially against US policy at a time when the
government was fighting to free slaves in the southern states. 

Kit Carson was very adept at locating the "hidden" homes of the Navajo. In
the desert hideouts of the Navajo, there was little leeway for this type of
destruction. Life in a desert environment was always a balance on the edge
of a knife blade. In a matter of months, many of the Navajo bands were
struggling, and were forced to turn themselves in to US military auspices at
Fort Defiance. The Navajo had been offered refuge at the fort, if they would
submit, voluntarily. At the fort, these refugees were fed, leading other
hungry bands to surrender. 

By January, 1864, the party had reached the mouth of Canyon de Chelly. This
was sacred territory, the Heart of the Navajo. Kit Carson appealed to
General Carleton, saying that he saw no point to invading the last refuge,
with the few residents who remained in the area. Carleton not only wanted
the action to be completed, he sent reinforcements from Fort Defiance to
insure success. Carson, under orders, proceeded. The Navajo, in a desperate
state, offered no resistance. A few women and children came out and
surrendered. Kit Carson fed them and treated them with dignity. When the
watching Navajo saw this, the remainder of the holdouts gave themselves up. 

The last of the Navajo resisters were taken by Carson to Fort Defiance. A
number of Navajo had, as expected, escaped into even more-remote areas of
Utah, around Navajo Mountain or into the Canyonlands area, but these
individuals were far too weak and too far away to present any real threat
anymore. They were subsisting totally on what they could gather in a barren
land. 

Meanwhile, the Navajo who had been rounded up at Fort Defiance were about to
undergo a traumatic event, the worst thing that the American Government
would do to the Navajo nation. It must be remembered that the government had
just finished a campaign of starvation. Most of the Navajo who had given up
had done so due to malnutrition, with no hope of additional food sources,
other than the good offices of their primary enemy, the US government. 

As the army collected the refugees, it made plans to move them out of the
Four Corners region. 6,000 Navajo were told that they would have to walk to
a new home, Fort Sumner, far away, in southeastern New Mexico. Only the
elderly, the children, and those truly infirm were provided with transport
in wagons. All others had to proceed on foot. This trek would come to be
known as "The Long Walk." For many Navajo, the Long Walk would become Year
One of a new era. For many purposes, Navajo time is now counted from the
time of the great relocation. 

Unknown numbers of the already weakened adults died on the way. This march
was through more, harsh, desert country. Most significant to the Navajo, the
destination was far away from Dine bi Keyah, their sacred homeland. They
were being forced to march past the corner mountains, that delimited "their"
world. Outside of their sacred lands, they believed, their religious
traditions would not work. Again, the Anglo was to disrupt and disrespect
native religious practices. 

The march took many weeks. The original 6,000 Navajo were not moved all at
once, but in groups, disrupting bands and families, and creating further
chaos in Navajo life. The new home was known as Bosque Redondo, meaning
"Round Forest" or "Circular Grove" in Spanish. The location was named for a
small group of cottonwood trees. There was little else in the area. Bosque
Redondo turned out to be a prison camp. Eventually, more Navajo, for a total
of 8,500 individuals, plus 400 Mescalero Apache, would join the first
arrivals and be held at Bosque Redondo. Their imprisonment would last for
four, long, sorrowful years. 

The Navajo were told by the United States to use their survival abilities,
and support themselves. This was next to impossible for them in the strange,
flat land, with different soils and weather patterns than those to which the
Navajo were accustomed. Few seeds were available, and the traditional Navajo
crops failed in the new environment. As Winter arrived, the exposed families
found that there was little wood for fuel and no local Coal Valley to
provide a source for heat. The local water supply was unreliable, for this
many people, and was of questionable quality. With the Navajo men under
guard and without their ponies, the usual supplementary supplies from
raiding were also gone. 

Meanwhile, the encampment was exposed and vulnerable, not just to the
weather, but also to raids by surrounding bands of still-untamed Apache and
Commanche. The army guards were effective at keeping the Navajo in, but not
at keeping marauders out. Supplies from the army were grossly inadequate,
and much of the food supplied by the government was strange and unpalatable
to Navajo tastes. 

With so many people in such a concentrated area, and limited supplies of
water, sanitation was difficult at Bosque Redondo. The Navajo, who had had
little previous extended contact with Whites, were now continuously
surrounded by Anglo soldiers, and had to meet and deal with government
representatives on an almost daily basis. This exposed the tribe to a number
of new diseases. Several epidemics swept through the camp. Many internees
died from European illnesses to which they still had little immunity.
Starvation and exposure would kill hundreds of others of the captives during
this imprisonment. 

The episode did not end until 1868. Finally, with the war over, Washington
took another look at the Southwest. They no longer had to worry about
Confederate sympathies in the region, or of Native American nations taking
the opposite side in the War Between the States. The majority of the Navajo
were now concentrated in a single site, where a few leaders could finally
make decisions and speak authoritatively for the nation, as a whole. This
was quite different from the earlier years when a "leader" spoke only for a
few families. 

Barboncito, chief spokesperson for the Navajo, negotiated a treaty with
Washington that would finally allow the Navajo to return to the Four Corners
and Canyon de Chelly. This pact stated that the Navajo would never fight
again. A reservation was to be provided for them on the mountains and
canyonlands around the Defiance Uplift.